8+ Buy Used Kaplan MCAT 2019 7-Book Set | Deals!


8+ Buy Used Kaplan MCAT 2019 7-Book Set | Deals!

A complete set of research supplies designed to assist people in making ready for the Medical Faculty Admission Take a look at (MCAT). These supplies, consisting of seven books and beforehand owned, had been revealed in 2019 by a distinguished check preparation firm. These books present content material evaluate, apply questions, and methods meant to enhance a test-taker’s rating. As an example, a pre-medical pupil may buy this set to complement their undergraduate coursework and information their unbiased research.

The utilization of those supplies can supply a number of benefits for potential medical college students. Entry to previously-owned research sources can cut back the monetary burden related to MCAT preparation. Furthermore, the 2019 version represents a considerable physique of information aligned with the MCAT examination format and content material specs extant at the moment, providing perception into testing traits. These supplies can act as a structured roadmap, notably helpful for self-directed learners. Traditionally, the writer has been a big participant in check preparation, lending credibility to the content material supplied.

The next sections will delve into the content material lined in these research guides, the potential benefits and downsides of utilizing a earlier version, and key issues for people considering incorporating these sources into their MCAT preparation technique. This evaluation will consider elements comparable to content material accuracy, alignment with present MCAT requirements, and the provision of supplemental supplies to make sure a well-rounded method to check readiness.

1. Content material Accuracy

Content material accuracy is paramount when using any MCAT preparation supplies, and the Kaplan MCAT 7-E book set from 2019 is not any exception. The reliability of the knowledge introduced instantly impacts the effectiveness of a pupil’s research efforts and their preparedness for the examination.

  • Scientific Updates

    Scientific data just isn’t static; analysis findings and theoretical understandings evolve. Materials from 2019 might not incorporate the latest discoveries or refined fashions in fields comparable to biology, chemistry, and physics. As an example, new biochemical pathways or revised anatomical classifications could also be absent, doubtlessly resulting in inaccurate or incomplete understanding.

  • MCAT Syllabus Alignment

    The MCAT’s content material specs are periodically reviewed and up to date by the AAMC (Affiliation of American Medical Schools). Whereas basic ideas stay constant, emphasis on particular subjects can shift. A 2019 useful resource may overemphasize or underemphasize content material areas relative to the present model of the examination. For example, socio-cultural and behavioral sciences, whereas current in 2019 supplies, will not be as comprehensively lined in comparison with sources developed following subsequent syllabus revisions.

  • Errata and Corrections

    Even meticulously edited publications can include errors. It’s essential to find out whether or not the 2019 Kaplan set has a printed errata record. Undetected errors can result in flawed understanding and incorrect solutions throughout apply, reinforcing misconceptions as an alternative of solidifying appropriate data. For instance, a single incorrect equation in a physics chapter might cascade into a number of incorrect downside options.

  • Info Interpretation

    Info interpretation entails vital analysis. Ambiguity of data usually happens, even with skilled publications comparable to Kaplan. A check taker may misunderstand or get incorrect reply if check taker didn’t notice that ambiguity. Info and reply is expounded to content material accuracy itself.

Due to this fact, potential customers of this specific research set should diligently cross-reference the content material with present MCAT syllabus pointers and verifiable scientific sources. It’s advisable to complement this useful resource with newer publications or on-line studying modules to handle any potential gaps in accuracy or forex. Diligence on this space is important to keep away from studying and internalizing out-of-date or faulty data.

2. Version Foreign money

The version forex of MCAT preparation supplies, notably the Kaplan MCAT 7-E book set from 2019, instantly impacts its suitability for modern test-takers. A 2019 version displays the MCAT’s content material specs and testing format as they existed at the moment. Subsequent updates to the MCAT by the Affiliation of American Medical Schools (AAMC) might render parts of the older version much less related and even out of date. For instance, adjustments to the emphasis positioned on behavioral sciences or alterations within the vital evaluation and reasoning expertise (CARS) part would necessitate supplemental sources to bridge the hole between the older version and the present examination.

The sensible significance of version forex extends past mere content material alignment. MCAT scoring algorithms and query varieties can evolve over time. A dated version might lack apply questions that precisely replicate the present distribution of query problem or the prevalence of sure experimental codecs. Moreover, reliance on an outdated version with out supplementation might result in inefficient research habits, as test-takers may allocate undue consideration to subjects which can be not closely emphasised whereas neglecting areas of elevated significance. The provision of on-line sources, apply checks, and up to date evaluate supplies launched by the AAMC and different check preparation firms highlights the significance of staying present with the newest version.

In conclusion, the version forex of the Kaplan MCAT 7-E book set from 2019 represents a vital consideration for potential customers. Whereas the supplies might supply an economical entry level to MCAT preparation, their worth is contingent on supplementing them with up-to-date sources that handle any discrepancies between the 2019 version and the present MCAT syllabus. Failure to account for these discrepancies might end in a compromised preparation technique and a doubtlessly decrease rating. The problem lies in hanging a steadiness between the monetary advantages of used supplies and the necessity for correct, modern content material.

3. Price Effectiveness

The first attraction of buying a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set lies in its cost-effectiveness in comparison with buying new editions or enrolling in complete check preparation programs. The monetary burden of MCAT preparation may be substantial, encompassing registration charges, research supplies, and doubtlessly, tutoring providers. Choosing a beforehand owned set of research books can considerably cut back this upfront funding. The trigger is the necessity for inexpensive research sources; the impact is the elevated accessibility of MCAT preparation for college students with restricted monetary means. This method permits test-takers to allocate sources to different important elements of their utility, comparable to interview preparation or utility charges. For instance, a pupil may select to speculate the financial savings from shopping for used books into knowledgeable utility evaluate service, thereby maximizing their total possibilities of success.

Nevertheless, a decrease preliminary price doesn’t assure total cost-effectiveness. The worth proposition hinges on the diploma to which the 2019 version adequately prepares the coed for the present MCAT. If substantial content material updates or adjustments in query format have occurred since 2019, the coed might have to buy supplementary supplies, attend further evaluate periods, or search tutoring to bridge the data hole. This may erode the preliminary price financial savings and doubtlessly end in a better total expenditure than if a newer version had been acquired from the outset. Moreover, the time spent figuring out and rectifying outdated or inaccurate data represents a chance price, diverting time from targeted research and apply. Think about a situation the place a pupil spends appreciable time studying outdated biochemical pathways from the 2019 books, solely to find that these are not emphasised on the present examination. This wasted effort interprets into misplaced research time and potential rating discount.

In abstract, the cost-effectiveness of using a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set is a nuanced difficulty. Whereas the lowered buy worth presents an plain profit, test-takers should rigorously weigh this in opposition to the potential want for supplementary sources and the chance price related to studying outdated content material. A balanced method entails totally assessing the alignment between the 2019 version and the present MCAT syllabus, supplementing the place crucial, and prioritizing environment friendly, focused research methods. The problem lies in optimizing the trade-off between speedy price financial savings and long-term preparation effectiveness, guaranteeing that the used supplies contribute to a robust MCAT rating with out incurring extreme further bills or wasted time.

4. Observe Questions

Observe questions inside the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set function a cornerstone for efficient MCAT preparation. Their relevance stems from the chance they supply to use discovered ideas, simulate the testing surroundings, and establish areas requiring additional consideration. The provision, high quality, and alignment of those questions with the present MCAT format are vital determinants of the set’s total worth.

  • Content material Illustration

    The apply questions ought to adequately characterize the breadth and depth of subjects lined on the MCAT. Ideally, the distribution of questions throughout topics like biology, chemistry, physics, and psychology ought to mirror the emphasis positioned on these areas within the precise examination. For instance, if the MCAT locations a big deal with biochemistry, an appropriate apply query set would come with a corresponding proportion of biochemistry-related questions. The content material shouldn’t be restricted to recall-based questions however must also embrace application-based and reasoning-based questions.

  • Problem Stage

    A well-designed apply query set incorporates questions of various problem ranges, mirroring the precise MCAT. This enables college students to regularly construct their confidence and problem-solving expertise. Beginning with simpler questions permits for preliminary idea reinforcement, whereas progressively difficult questions promote vital considering and utility of information to complicated eventualities. As an example, less complicated questions may contain figuring out a selected enzyme in a metabolic pathway, whereas extra complicated questions may require analyzing experimental information to find out the impact of a drug on that pathway.

  • Format Constancy

    The format of the apply questions ought to carefully resemble that of the particular MCAT. This contains the query stem construction, the fashion of reply selections, and the general presentation. Publicity to the check format reduces check anxiousness and familiarizes college students with the timing and pacing required for the examination. If the present MCAT emphasizes passage-based questions, the apply set ought to embrace a considerable variety of such questions, full with accompanying graphs, tables, and experimental information.

  • Explanatory Solutions

    The worth of apply questions is considerably enhanced by the inclusion of detailed explanatory solutions. These explanations shouldn’t solely establish the right reply but in addition clarify why the opposite choices are incorrect. A radical rationalization helps college students perceive the underlying ideas, establish their errors in reasoning, and study from their errors. In eventualities the place a query entails a posh calculation, the explanatory reply ought to present a step-by-step breakdown of the answer course of, highlighting the related formulation and ideas.

The effectiveness of “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” in making ready college students for the MCAT is intrinsically linked to the standard and relevance of its apply questions. These questions supply a vital alternative to check data, refine problem-solving expertise, and simulate the testing surroundings. Nevertheless, customers should critically consider the content material illustration, problem stage, format constancy, and explanatory solutions to make sure that the apply questions align with the present MCAT requirements. If deficiencies are recognized, supplemental apply sources could also be crucial to make sure complete preparation.

5. Conceptual Evaluation

The Kaplan MCAT 7-E book set from 2019 goals to supply a complete conceptual evaluate of the scientific ideas and reasoning expertise examined on the MCAT. The effectiveness of this evaluate hinges on the readability, accuracy, and depth of the reasons supplied for every subject. A robust conceptual evaluate part permits college students to construct a strong basis of information, facilitating their capacity to unravel apply issues and analyze complicated passages. For instance, an intensive rationalization of enzyme kinetics, full with related graphs and equations, permits college students to not solely memorize definitions but in addition perceive the underlying mechanisms governing enzyme exercise. This, in flip, enhances their capability to reply questions that require making use of these ideas to novel eventualities.

The conceptual evaluate inside these supplies serves as a structured information by the huge quantity of data examined on the MCAT. It breaks down complicated subjects into manageable sections, incorporating diagrams, illustrations, and mnemonic gadgets to assist comprehension and retention. Moreover, it emphasizes the connections between totally different scientific disciplines, selling a holistic understanding of the underlying ideas. As an example, the evaluate may spotlight the hyperlink between acid-base chemistry and respiratory physiology, enabling college students to understand how adjustments in blood pH have an effect on respiration fee. The worth of the conceptual evaluate part is realized when college students can articulate the core ideas in their very own phrases, apply them to quite a lot of downside varieties, and join them to different related scientific ideas.

In conclusion, conceptual evaluate varieties a vital part of the Kaplan MCAT 7-E book set from 2019. It offers the foundational data upon which college students construct their problem-solving expertise and test-taking methods. Whereas the accuracy and forex of the content material have to be verified in opposition to the newest MCAT syllabus, a well-executed conceptual evaluate provides a useful start line for examination preparation. It equips college students with the mental instruments essential to method the MCAT with confidence and competence. The problem lies in guaranteeing that the conceptual evaluate just isn’t merely a set of details however moderately a coherent and insightful synthesis of scientific data.

6. Strategic Approaches

The “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set, like many complete MCAT preparation supplies, incorporates sections devoted to strategic approaches. These methods purpose to optimize test-taking efficiency past mere content material mastery. Strategic approaches embody time administration strategies, strategies for analyzing query stems and reply selections, and ways for prioritizing questions primarily based on problem and potential level worth. The inclusion of those methods inside the books intends to equip test-takers with instruments to maximise their rating inside the constraints of the timed examination. For instance, the supplies might advocate for using a technique of elimination to slender down reply selections or recommend strategies for shortly figuring out key data inside prolonged passage-based questions. A pupil using these approaches may consciously allocate extra time to questions of their strongest topic space or undertake a technique of skipping difficult questions initially, returning to them later if time permits. The strategic approaches are included as a complement to content material evaluate; the impact sought is a extra environment friendly and efficient method to the examination.

The effectiveness of the strategic approaches introduced within the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set depends on a number of elements. The methods themselves have to be aligned with the present MCAT format and scoring system. Methods that had been efficient on earlier variations of the examination will not be optimum for the present iteration. Moreover, the effectiveness of any technique is contingent on the person test-taker’s capacity to adapt and apply it appropriately. A method that works properly for one pupil will not be appropriate for one more as a result of variations in studying types, strengths, and weaknesses. The supplies may embrace apply drills and workout routines designed to assist college students internalize and personalize these strategic approaches. As an example, the books might present timed apply sections the place college students are instructed to consciously apply particular time administration strategies and replicate on their effectiveness afterward. The final word aim is to develop a strategic framework that permits test-takers to navigate the examination effectively and confidently.

In conclusion, strategic approaches are an integral element of the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set, providing test-takers instruments to boost their efficiency past content material data. Nevertheless, the utility of those methods hinges on their relevance to the present MCAT format and the person’s capacity to successfully implement them. A vital analysis of those approaches, coupled with personalised adaptation and constant apply, is important to maximise their affect. The problem is to maneuver past merely understanding the methods and to combine them seamlessly into the test-taking course of, thereby optimizing each pace and accuracy. This entails deliberate apply and self-reflection, permitting test-takers to establish what works finest for them and to refine their method accordingly.

7. Bodily Situation

The bodily situation of a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set instantly impacts its utility and worth as a research useful resource. Deterioration, harm, or lacking parts can hinder the educational course of and diminish the general effectiveness of the preparation supplies. Assessing the bodily state of the books is due to this fact a vital step in figuring out their suitability for buy and use.

  • Legibility and Readability

    The presence of extreme highlighting, underlining, or annotations can compromise the legibility of the textual content and make it tough to deal with the core ideas. Equally, water harm, staining, or fading can obscure the textual content and render parts of the books unreadable. Think about a situation the place vital data on enzyme kinetics is obscured by highlighting or water harm, hindering a pupil’s capacity to know and apply the ideas. The readability of the textual content instantly influences the effectivity of the research course of.

  • Structural Integrity

    Broken spines, unfastened pages, or torn covers can compromise the structural integrity of the books and make them tough to deal with and use. Pages which can be indifferent or vulnerable to falling out can disrupt the stream of research and create frustration. For instance, a e book with a damaged backbone won’t lie flat, making it difficult to make use of for prolonged intervals. The structural integrity of the books impacts their sturdiness and ease of use.

  • Completeness of the Set

    The “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set is designed as a complete assortment of research supplies. Lacking volumes or parts can create gaps within the content material protection and hinder the general preparation course of. The absence of a vital evaluate e book or apply check can considerably diminish the worth of the set. Completeness of the supplies ensures complete data for a greater grade.

  • Annotation Fashion and High quality

    Whereas annotations can generally be useful, extreme or poorly executed annotations can detract from the educational expertise. Illegible handwriting, irrelevant feedback, or incorrect markings can create confusion and doubtlessly reinforce misconceptions. It is essential to get skilled annotators as an alternative of normal annotators. Annotation high quality is essential for research efficiency in “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019”.

In abstract, the bodily situation of a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set is a big issue to contemplate. Assessing the legibility, structural integrity, completeness, and annotation high quality of the books helps decide their suitability for efficient MCAT preparation. A set that’s in poor bodily situation might require vital effort to restore or complement, doubtlessly negating the associated fee financial savings related to buying used supplies.

8. Complement Availability

The provision of supplementary sources considerably influences the effectiveness of the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set as a complete preparation instrument. The age of the supplies necessitates a consideration of whether or not further sources are required to handle gaps in content material protection or to account for updates within the MCAT syllabus. The extent to which these dietary supplements are accessible and inexpensive instantly impacts the general worth of the used e book set.

  • On-line Assets and Observe Checks

    Many check preparation firms supply on-line platforms with apply checks, video classes, and interactive quizzes that complement their printed supplies. Figuring out the provision of such sources for the 2019 Kaplan MCAT supplies is essential. If the net platform is not accessible or requires a separate subscription charge, the worth of the used e book set could also be diminished. For instance, a pupil may discover that the net diagnostic checks referenced within the books are not useful, requiring them to hunt different sources for apply questions and efficiency suggestions. Availability ensures a complete method.

  • Up to date Editions and Errata

    For the reason that publication of the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set, newer editions of the Kaplan MCAT books have been launched. Assessing the extent to which the content material has been up to date in these newer editions helps establish potential areas the place the 2019 supplies could also be missing. Moreover, checking for the existence of revealed errata for the 2019 version is crucial to appropriate any errors or inaccuracies. As an example, if vital adjustments have been made to the behavioral sciences part of the MCAT since 2019, college students utilizing the older supplies might have to seek the advice of newer editions or different sources to make sure they’re adequately ready. Errata present correct data.

  • Official AAMC Supplies

    The Affiliation of American Medical Schools (AAMC), which administers the MCAT, provides official apply supplies, together with apply exams and query packs. These supplies are broadly thought of to be probably the most correct illustration of the particular MCAT and are due to this fact extremely useful for preparation. Whereas the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set might present a strong basis, supplementing it with official AAMC supplies can considerably improve a pupil’s preparedness. Official supplies present correct illustration.

  • Third-Celebration Evaluation Supplies

    Quite a few different check preparation firms supply MCAT evaluate books, apply questions, and on-line sources. Exploring the provision of those third-party supplies can present different views and extra apply alternatives. For instance, a pupil may select to complement the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set with evaluate books from one other writer that provide extra in-depth protection of sure subjects or a unique method to problem-solving. Excessive rated supplies can enhance grades, for instance.

In conclusion, the accessibility of supplementary sources performs a vital function in maximizing the effectiveness of the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set. Evaluating the provision of on-line platforms, up to date editions, official AAMC supplies, and third-party evaluate supplies helps decide whether or not the used e book set offers a sufficiently complete preparation expertise or requires further funding to handle potential gaps in content material or forex. This analysis needs to be a vital issue within the decision-making course of for potential purchasers of those supplies.

Steadily Requested Questions

The next questions handle frequent inquiries and issues relating to the utilization of a previously-owned Kaplan MCAT 7-E book set from the 2019 version. These solutions purpose to supply readability and help people in making knowledgeable selections about their MCAT preparation technique.

Query 1: Is the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set nonetheless related for the present MCAT examination?

Whereas the elemental scientific ideas lined within the 2019 version stay legitimate, adjustments to the MCAT syllabus and query codecs might necessitate supplementary sources. A radical comparability of the content material within the books with the present AAMC pointers is advisable to establish any gaps in data or outdated data.

Query 2: How can content material inaccuracies within the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set be addressed?

Cross-referencing data with respected sources, comparable to present textbooks, scientific journals, and official AAMC supplies, may also help establish and proper any factual errors or outdated ideas. Moreover, consulting on-line errata lists or contacting Kaplan buyer help might present additional clarification.

Query 3: What are the important thing issues when evaluating the bodily situation of a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set?

The bodily situation of the books needs to be assessed for legibility, structural integrity, completeness, and annotation high quality. Extreme highlighting, water harm, unfastened pages, or lacking volumes can compromise the usability of the supplies and detract from the educational expertise.

Query 4: Are the apply questions within the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set consultant of the present MCAT examination?

The apply questions within the 2019 version might not totally replicate the present distribution of query problem, the prevalence of sure experimental codecs, or the emphasis positioned on particular subjects. Supplementing these questions with official AAMC apply supplies is advisable to make sure enough preparation for the present examination format.

Query 5: How can the cost-effectiveness of utilizing a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set be maximized?

To maximise cost-effectiveness, the preliminary financial savings from buying used books needs to be weighed in opposition to the potential want for supplementary sources and the chance price related to studying outdated content material. A balanced method entails rigorously assessing the alignment between the 2019 version and the present MCAT syllabus, supplementing the place crucial, and prioritizing environment friendly research methods.

Query 6: The place can supplemental supplies for the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set be obtained?

Supplemental supplies may be obtained from numerous sources, together with official AAMC publications, up to date editions of Kaplan MCAT books, on-line check preparation platforms, and third-party evaluate supplies. The selection of dietary supplements needs to be guided by a cautious evaluation of the gaps in content material or forex inside the 2019 version.

In abstract, using a previously-owned Kaplan MCAT 7-E book set from 2019 can supply an economical start line for examination preparation. Nevertheless, cautious consideration have to be given to content material accuracy, version forex, bodily situation, apply query relevance, and the provision of supplementary sources to make sure a complete and efficient research technique.

The next part will delve into methods for adapting the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set to particular person studying types and research schedules.

Optimizing MCAT Preparation with Beforehand-Owned Supplies

Efficient utilization of a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set requires a strategic method. The following tips supply steering on maximizing the worth of those sources, addressing potential limitations, and guaranteeing complete preparation.

Tip 1: Conduct a Thorough Content material Audit:

Evaluate the content material define of the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set with the present AAMC MCAT content material information. Determine any subjects which were added, eliminated, or considerably altered. This establishes a roadmap for supplementary research.

Tip 2: Prioritize Official AAMC Supplies:

The AAMC apply exams and query packs present probably the most correct illustration of the particular MCAT. Combine these supplies into the research schedule, utilizing the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set for foundational data and ability growth earlier than progressing to official sources.

Tip 3: Give attention to Foundational Rules:

The “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set can function a useful useful resource for reinforcing core scientific ideas. Give attention to mastering these fundamentals, as they’re much less vulnerable to vital change over time. Areas comparable to primary chemistry, physics, and biology stay largely constant throughout MCAT variations.

Tip 4: Complement with Up-to-Date Evaluation Articles:

For subjects the place vital developments have occurred since 2019, seek the advice of current evaluate articles in respected scientific journals. This ensures that the understanding of those areas is present and aligned with modern scientific data.

Tip 5: Make the most of On-line Assets for Observe Questions:

Discover on-line platforms that provide up to date MCAT apply questions and diagnostic checks. These sources can present useful suggestions on efficiency and establish areas requiring additional research. Search platforms with detailed explanations for each appropriate and incorrect solutions.

Tip 6: Observe Energetic Recall and Spaced Repetition:

Whatever the particular research supplies used, lively recall and spaced repetition are efficient strategies for enhancing long-term retention. Often quiz oneself on the content material lined within the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set, spacing out evaluate periods over rising intervals.

The following tips promote environment friendly utilization of the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set, mitigating potential drawbacks and maximizing its advantages. A strategic method, coupled with supplementary sources, can facilitate complete MCAT preparation.

The next part will current a concluding abstract, reinforcing the important thing issues for leveraging the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set and emphasizing the significance of a customized research technique.

Conclusion

The previous evaluation has addressed the suitability of using a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set for modern MCAT preparation. Key issues embrace content material accuracy, version forex, bodily situation, apply query relevance, and the provision of supplementary sources. Whereas the “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set might supply an economical entry level to MCAT research, reliance solely on these supplies with out cautious analysis and supplementation just isn’t suggested. A strategic method entails evaluating the content material to present AAMC pointers, prioritizing official apply supplies, and supplementing outdated data with current publications.

Profitable MCAT preparation calls for a dedication to correct and up-to-date data. Potential medical college students should prioritize sources that replicate the present examination’s content material and format. The choice to include a “kaplan mcat used 7 e book 2019” set into one’s research plan needs to be predicated on an intensive evaluation of its limitations and a proactive method to addressing any recognized deficiencies. Diligent and knowledgeable preparation stays paramount for reaching success on the MCAT and progressing in direction of a profession in drugs.